![]() ![]() Thus, the stage was set for the conflict that would change the face of ancient Rome irrevocably. With Lepidus out of the picture, only two remained: Octavian in the West and Mark Antony in the East. The first to go was Lepidus, who tried to take Sicily for himself, only for his legions to defect to Octavian’s side. Each triumvir was deeply suspicious and jealous of the others and aware that this uneasy alliance could not last long. The alliance between the three grandees was always based on self-interest. Yet, trouble for the beleaguered Republic was far from over. Then, in 37 BCE, Octavian’s friend and admiral Agrippa defeated the fleet of Pompey the Great’s last surviving son, Sextus Pompey, restoring control over Sicily and Sardinia to Rome. With the homefront pacified, in 42 BCE, Octavian and Antony took an army to Greece and defeated the “liberator” ringleaders - Brutus and Cassius - at the Battle of Philippi. Marble portrait of Emperor Augustus, 27 BCE-14 CE, via the Walters Art Museum, Baltimore However, it is known that the future emperor approved of the murder of his supporter, and Antony’s harsh critic, Cicero. The extent of Octavian’s role in the purge is unclear. While the decree was partly motivated by a need to raise funds for the incoming conflict, the legalized murder allowed the triumviri to eliminate all their potential enemies. Anyone could kill a proscribed man, and as a reward, they could keep a share of the victim’s property, while the rest went to the triumvirs to pay their army. Before the vengeful three departed to the East to eliminate the “liberators,” they set in motion the infamous proscriptions. The result was a political alliance known as the Second Triumvirate. In 43 BCE, the three grandees pooled their armies and resources intending to avenge Caesar’s murder and restore the stability and prosperity of the Roman Republic. Any hope for restoring the old order was dashed with the arrival of a third supporter of Caesar - Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Instead of the destructive showdown, which the senators hoped for, the two men decided to cooperate. It did not take long for Octavian to change his strategy and chart his own path. However, these soldiers served Caesar’s heir, not the Senate. His veterans defeated Antony and pushed his rival across the Alps. The Three Grandees Numismatic portraits of Mark Antony, Octavian, 39 BCE, and Lepidus, 43 BCE, via the British MuseumĪt first, Octavian played by the Senate rules. But these were unusual times, with the old Republican system teetering on the brink of collapse after decades of violent rivalry and civil war.ĭeath of Caesar, by Vicenzo Camuccini, 1806, via Museo e Real Bosco di Capodimonte, Milano ![]() By doing this, Octavian went against all the rules, bypassing the election process. 19-year-old Octavian accepted the will of his great-uncle, publicly announcing that he intended to take not only Caesar’s wealth and name but also high office. While Julius Caesar had no biological children, he had adopted his great-nephew Octavian, naming him his principal heir. Only at Caesar’s funeral did the self-proclaimed “liberators” discover that their dead nemesis had outmaneuvered them. This mistake would cost them and the Republic dearly. They had failed to eliminate the men whom Caesar considered his closest allies and his family. But the conspirators, the senators themselves, missed one crucial element. Caesar’s death was deemed to be the end of one-man rule and a return to Republican ideals. He was, after all, murdered on the steps of a building erected by his fiercest rival, Pompey the Great. The end of the most powerful man in Rome was somewhat ironic. ![]() On 15th March 44 BCE (the ides of March), Julius Caesar was assassinated during a Senate meeting. Octavian: Caesar’s Heir Portrait of Octavian, 35-29 BCE, via Musei Capitolini, Rome By strengthening the state, and its military, Octavian created the Roman Empire - the world’s ancient superpower. However, as the first Roman emperor (Augustus), he would make Rome more influential, powerful, and wealthy. He exploited his victory in the war, which he himself had orchestrated, to undermine whatever remained of Republican institutions, laying the foundations for a new order. Octavian lied, schemed, manipulated, even murdered (or had murder approved) to reach the top. He was, however, a highly charismatic, crafty, and ambitious young man, a political animal who would stop at nothing to achieve his aim. Despite winning the war, Octavian was not a good general. The years of turmoil led to great bloodshed and instability, and when the dust finally settled, only one man was left standing. For two decades, powerful leaders and their armies fought for control of Rome, and with it, the entire Roman world. The assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE plunged the Roman Republic into chaos. ![]()
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